Monday, February 28, 2011
HYPOTHESIS
INTRODUCTION
Formulation of hypothesis or propositions is an important step in the formulation of the research problem. It is known as principal instrument in research. In fact in certain situations the very purpose of research is to test the hypothesis. Although hypotheses are not essential for research they, certainly provide clarity, specificity and focus to the problem. They tell the researcher what specific information to collect, and thereby provide greater focus.
MEANING
Hypothesis is a tentative proposition. It is a hunch. It is an assumption or an intelligent guess. It is formulated for empirical testing. It is a tentative answer to a research question. It is tentative because it is yet to be empirically tested. You test these by collecting information that will enable you to conclude if your hypothesis was right. According to Lundberg,” hypothesis is a tentative generalisation, the validity of which remains to be tested.” According to Goode and Hatt, it is” a proposition which can be put to a test to determine its validity.” From the above definitions three things become clear. First of all hypothesis is a tentative propositions. Secondly its validity is unknown. Thirdly in most cases it specifies a relationship between two or more variables.
CHARACTERISTICS
- A hypothesis must be simple, specific and conceptually clear. It must try to test only one relationship at a time. For example the average age of the male students in this class is higher than that of the female. This hypothesis is simple, clear, specific and easy to test. It tells you what you are attempting to compare (average age of this class), which population groups are being compared (female and male students), what you want to establish (higher average age of the male students).
- A hypothesis must be capable of verification: If the hypothesis is not verifiable the hypothesis has no meaning. In other words methods and techniques must be available for data collection and analysis.
- Hypothesis should be related to body of knowledge: The hypothesis should emerge from the existing body of knowledge. Above all it should add to it. Naturally a hypothesis is to be formulated after a through reading of the subject.
- Hypothesis must be operationalisable: It must be expressed in terms that are measurable. If it is not measurable it cannot be tested. In such a situation no conclusion can be drawn.
TYPES OF HYPOTHESIS
There are different kinds of classification of hypotheses. Now on the basis of its function it can be classified as Descriptive hypothesis and Relational hypothesis. Another approach is to classify them as Working hypothesis, null hypothesis and statistical hypothesis. Third approach is to divide them on the basis of the level of abstraction. Accordingly on the basis of simple description one can have commonsense hypothesis. Secondly on the basis of logical derivation one can have complex hypothesis. Finally on the basis of abstraction one can have analytical hypothesis.
Descriptive Hypotheses and Relational Hypotheses: Descriptive hypotheses describe the characteristics of a variable (such as size, form, distribution). The variable may be an object, person, organisation, situation or event. For example the rate of unemployment among art graduates is higher than that of commerce graduates. Public enterprises are more open for centralised planning. Relational hypotheses describe a relationship between two variables. The relationship suggested may be positive or negative correlation or causal relationship. For example families with higher incomes spend more on recreation. Participative management promotes motivation among executives.
Working Hypotheses: As one begins to study a problem hypotheses are formulated. In the beginning the hypotheses may not be very specific. Such hypotheses are known as working hypotheses. These are subject to correction as one begins to go further into the research.
Null Hypotheses: These are hypothetical statements denying what are explicitly indicated in working hypotheses. These are formulated for testing statistical significance. As the test would nullify the null hypotheses they are called null hypotheses.
Statistical Hypotheses: These are statements about a statistical population. These are derived from a sample. These are quantitative in nature and they are measurable. For example group A is older than group B.
Commonsense Hypotheses: These are hypotheses that are very common to even ordinary lay men. They highlight empirical uniformities. Such empirical uniformities are perceived in our societies and in the behaviour pattern of certain groups of people. For example soldiers from upper-class are less adjusted in the army than lower class men. Generally commonsense hypotheses are not scientific in nature. Because they are mixture of clichés and moral judgements. Thus they have to be made scientific.
Complex Hypotheses: They aim at testing the logically derived relationship between empirical uniformities. In our social setting one can come across number of empirical uniformities. When such uniformities are made into ideal types they become complex hypotheses. For example the marginalised groups are generally silent. Such an empirical uniformity is termed as culture of silence. Now this hypothesis may be an execration of the truth. As the statements are far removed from the fact they become complex.
Analytical Hypotheses: These hypotheses are concerned with the relationship of analytical variables. This requires the formulation of a relationship between changes in one property and changes in another. This kind of hypotheses is the outcome of highest level of abstraction.
FUNCTIONS OF HYPOTHESES
In social sciences hypotheses renders several important functions. We shall discuss some of the important functions.
- It gives a definite point for the investigation. It provides the direction of the study. It provides the much needed focus to the research.
- A hypothesis specifies the source of data, which shall be studied, and in what context they shall be studied.
- It decides the data needs. It defines which facts are relevant and which are not.
- A hypothesis suggests which type of research is likely to be most appropriate.
- It decides the most appropriate technique of analysis.
- Hypotheses contribute to the development of theory. It links theory and investigation.
Variable
n A concept which can take on different quantitative or qualitative values
For example:
Ex: weight, height, income, etc
n Variable is a ‘symbol to which values or numerals are assigned’.
Variable – Construct /Quality / Property to be studied
Types of Variable
n Independent Variable
n Dependent Variable
n Extraneous Variable
n Continuous Variable
n Discrete Variable
n Ordinal Variable
n Nominal variable
Independent Variable
n The variable that is antecedent to the dependent variable is a ‘independent variable’
n The variable whose change results in the change in another variable is called an independent variable.
n An independent variable is the one that influences the dependant variable in either a positive or negative way
Dependent Variable
n The variable which depends upon or is a consequence of another variable is a ‘dependent variable’
n The variable that changes in relationship to changes in another variable(s) is called dependant variable.
Defining Independent & Dependent Variable
n Independent V Dependent V
Presumed Cause Presumed Effect
Stimulus Response
Predicted From… Predicted To…
Antecedent Consequence
Manipulated Measured Outcome
Input Output
Treatment Outcome
Extraneous Variable
n Independent variable that are not related to the purpose of the study but may affect the dependent variable are termed as an ‘extraneous variable’
IV DV
EV
Continuous Variable
n Phenomena which can take on quantitatively different values even in decimal points are called as a ‘continuous variable’
Ex: Age
n height in centimetres (2.5 cm or 2.546 cm or 2.543216 cm)
n temperature in degrees Celsius (37.20C or 37.199990C etc.)
Discrete Variable
n If the values can only be expressed in integer values, they are non-continuous variable or discrete variable
Ex: number of children
n number of visits to a clinic (0, 1, 2, 3, 4, etc).
n number of friends (0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, etc.)
Ordinal variables
n These are grouped variables that are ordered or ranked in increasing or decreasing order.
For example:
High income (above $300 per month);
Middle income ($100-$300 per month); Low income (less than $100 per month).
Other examples are:
n Agreement with a statement: fully agree, partially agree, fully disagree
n Disability: no disability, partial disability, serious or total disability
n Seriousness of a disease: severe, moderate, mild
Nominal variables
n The groups in these variables do not have an order or ranking in them.
For example:
Sex: male, female
Main food crops: maize, millet, rice, etc.
Religion: Christian, Muslim, Hindu, etc.
Factors rephrased as variables
Tuesday, January 18, 2011
Research Gap
n Research gap is referred to the ‘unexpected areas of research or areas of research which has not been touched by others so far’
n It induces the involvement of the researcher in the task of mastering the areas / topics where research has been already undertaken
Wednesday, January 12, 2011
INTER-DISCIPLINARY RESEARCH
INTRODUCTION
n Each social science is concerned with social relationships or human relationships.
n These human relationships have multiple aspects of economic, social, political, psychological and anthropological.
n Such social studies study people from a particular view point. E.g.., Economics studies the economic aspect of man.
n Each social science has a method peculiar to it, which distinguishes it from other sciences.
n Some social problems are such that they are connected with two or more than two social sciences.
n The study of such problems, therefore requires the use of methods peculiar to several sciences.
n This is known as Inter-disciplinary Approach.
DEFINITION
“Inter-Disciplinary Research (IDR) is a method of research by teams or individuals that integrates information, data, techniques, tools, perspectives, concepts, and/or theories from two or more discipline or bodies of specialized knowledge to advance fundamental understanding or to slove problems whose solutions are beyond the scope of a single discipline or area of research practice.”
CURRENT SITUATION
v IDR is pluralistic in method and focus.
v It may be conducted by individuals or groups and may be driven by scientific curiosity or practical needs.
v Interdisciplinary thinking is rapidly becoming an integral feature of research as a result of powerful “Drivers”.
n The success of IDR groups depends on institutional commitment and research leadership.
The Need of Inter-Disciplinary Research
n These days one finds more and more use of interdisciplinary approach in social sciences.
n In fact, some studies are not possible without such an approach
The following are the main reasons of the need of interdisciplinary research;-
1. Mutual relationships of different sciences
2. Imperfection of science
3. Several aspects of social phenomenon
4. Need of objectivity
1. Mutual relationships of different studies
· Though each science is considered as distinct, most of the sciences are interconnected.
· Such social sciences is directly or indirectly concerned with a man, it is obvious that they may be inter-related.
· Therefore one science is bound to influence other sciences.
· Hence the need of interdisciplinary approach is obvious.
2. Imperfection of science
n No social science is complete or perfect.
n E.g.., economics cannot solve all the social problems, nor can medicine relieve all the tensions.
n Each social science is concerned only with a limited aspect of study.
n In order to study the total society one will have to take resources of several sciences.
n Therefore, the interdisciplinary approach is utilized in such case.
3. Several aspects of social phenomenon
n Social phenomenon are complex, each social phenomenon has several aspects.
n No social phenomenon can be completely free from external influences.
n In such a situation, in order to know the social phenomenon, it is necessary to find out different factors determining them
n To know all these factors inter-disciplinary approach is required.
4.Need of objectivity
n In spite of all precautions it is difficult to claim objectivity in social sciences.
n The need to increase objectivity requires that the same problems should be studied by various methods in various aspects.
n For this interdisciplinary approach is required.
TYPES OF INTER-DISCIPLINARY RESEARCH
1. Inter-disciplinary approach coordinate various sciences. A type of this method is such that in its social investigator himself conducts research and seeks help from other sciences wherever required. This help is secured in the form of expert advice from the researchers of other sciences.
2. In a different type of inter-disciplinary approach, different experts of different sciences conduct researchers in their own field. They study a problem independently and themselves prepare plan of study in their own field.
3. The third type is somewhat different from the two types. In it, the investigators from the different sciences work in collaboration right from the beginning to the end. They work as members of a research group or team in which the functions are divided and every member is responsible to fulfill his own functions.
THE PROCESS OF INTER-DISCIPLINARY RESEARH
The main steps in the process of interdisciplinary research as follows;-
1. Construction of the main plan of research
2. Determination of required social science
3. Determination of roles of different social science
4. Coordination of results
1. Construction of the main plan of research
n First of all, a chief committee for research is organized. The main functions of this committee is to determine the problem of research.
n It delimits area of social science research and clearly defines its aims and objectives.
2.Determination of required social sciences
n After the classification of their problem, field and aims and objectives of research, it is decided as to which science, the limits of their cooperation are fixed.
3. Determination of roles of different social sciences
n After the determination of required sciences, the roles of different sciences are determined.
For e.g.., if a particular social research requires the collaboration of geography, then it is necessary to determine the role of each these social sciences in the particular social research.
4. Coordination of results
n In interdisciplinary research, different scientists study a problem from their own view points and arrive at different conclusions.
n These conclusions provide knowledge limited to a particular aspect of a social problem.
Therefore, in order to achieve an integral knowledge, of the problem the different conclusions must be coordinated.
PROBLEMS OF INTER-DISCIPLINARY RESEARCH
n Different scientists may be called members of a group and apparently their relations are cooperative but in difficulties and problems in the utilization of interdisciplinary approach.
Some of the important are as follow;-
n Considering one’s own social sciences as the best
n Lack of team spirit
n Difference in view point
n Problems in the coordination of result
ADVANTAGES OF IDR
The advantages of this approach are mainly as follows;-
1. Integral study
2. Elimination of errors
3. Objectivity
4. Good will among different social sciences
1.Integral study
n A particular science studies only a particular aspect of a social or economic problem.
n The integral approach, on the other hand, leads to an integral part and total study.
n Thus, it is particularly useful for a deep and all round study of a problem.
2.Elimination of errors
n There is possibility of several errors in the study of a social problem in a particular science.
n On the other hand, if the same problem is simultaneously studied in several sciences, the possibility of errors is diminishes.
3.Objectivity
n Every scientist has his own prejudices which retard the objectivity of his study.
n In interdisciplinary research, several scientists study as a team, which considerable diminishes and eliminated the influence of their personal prejudices, increasing objectivity of research thereby.
4.Goodwill among different social sciences
n When several scientists work as members of a team, they come to realize the importance of other sciences. Therefore interdisciplinary approach creates goodwill among the fields of different sciences.
DISADVANTAGES OF IDR
IDR suffers from several disadvantages, of these the most important are as follows;-
1. Limited utility
2. Less organized and systematic
3. More expensive
4. Unreliable conclusions
1. Limited utility
n The IDR approach is useful only in the study of some general and practical problems.
n It is not utilized in the study of complex and theoretical problems.
n Therefore, its utility is limited
2. More expensive
n As this approach of study requires the services of several coming from different fields, it requires much more expenditure as compared to other methods.
3. Less organized and systematic
n The study organized on the basis of inter-disciplinary approach is generally less organized and systematic than expected.
n So that sometimes the study becomes entirely out of control
4. Unreliable conclusions
n As the function of coordination mostly done by one or more senior scientist, their prejudices and sense of superiority may be hindrances in the proper coordination or results.
n Therefore, the conclusions reached by interdisciplinary approach are sometimes not reliable
CONCLUSION
q Comparing the hitherto discussed advantages and disadvantages of interdisciplinary approach one may conclude that like other methods it also has its utility in some particular cases of research studies.
q As a general rule, every method in social sciences, whatever may be its peculiar advantages, is effective only in some cases and not in all the cases of research
Monday, January 10, 2011
REVIEW OF LITERATURE
Meaning
- Literature Review is the documentation of a comprehensive review of the published and unpublished work from secondary sources of data in the areas of specific interest to the researcher.
- The main aim is to find out problems that are already investigated and those that need further investigation.
- It is an extensive survey of all available past studies relevant to the field of investigation.
- It gives us knowledge about what others have found out in the related field of study and how they have done so.
NEED / PURPOSE OF REVIEW
· To gain a background knowledge of the research topic.
· To identify the concepts relating to it, potential relationships between them and to formulate researchable hypothesis.
· To identify appropriate methodology, research design, methods of measuring concepts and techniques of analysis.
· To identify data sources used by other researchers.
· To learn how others structured their reports.
nA knowledge of Related Literature enables to define the Frontiers of the Field
nUnderstanding of the theory enables to place the Question in a Wider Perspective
nRelated Literature recommends Procedures / Methods /Instructions
nAvoids unintentional Replication of Previous Research
nBetter position to interpret the significance of the study and its results
How to conduct the Literature Survey?
¡Identify the relevant sources.
¡Extract and Record relevant information.
¡Write-up the Literature Review.
SOURCES OF LITERATURE
- Encyclopedia
- Generic ex: Encyclopedia Britannica
- Specific ex: Encyclopedia on Social Sciences
- Books – Year Books
- Text Books
- Reference Books
- Journal – Monthly, Quarterly, Half-yearly, annual
- Magazines – Weekly, Bi-weekly, etc
- Handbook/Monographs
- Govt. and Industry Reports
- Seminar Reports / Abstracts
- Newspaper/Bulletin
- Research Dissertation and Thesis
- Documents
- Internets
- Electronic Databases
- Bibliographic Databases
- Abstract Databases
- Full-Text Databases
Guidelines for Evaluating Internet
¡Internet is not a Library
¡Checklist of main points
nAuthorship
nSponsorship
nPoint of View
nRelevance
nVerifiability
nCurrency
Search Engines
¡A specialized device that searches the Web for documents that match key words, proper names, and phrases
RECORDING THE LITERATURE
lThe most suitable method of recording notes is the card system.
lThe recording system involves use of two sets of cards:
¡Source cards (3”x 5”) – used for noting bibliographic information.
¡Note cards (5”x 8”) – used for actual note taking.
SOURCE CARDS
lSource Cards serve two purposes:
¡Provide documentary information for foot notes.
¡It is used for compiling bibliography to be given at the end of the report.
lSource Cards can be coded by a simple system inorder to relate them to the corresponding note cards.
lMarking a combination of letters and a number on the right hand top corner that begins with ‘C’. For example; C1, C2 etc.
OR
lMarking the letter ‘B’ or ‘J’ or ‘R’ (B=Books, J=Journal, R=Report) on the left hand top corner.
lThe recording of bibliographic information should be made in proper bibliographic format.
lThe format for citing a book is:
¡Author’s name, (year), Title of the book, Place of publication, Publisher’s name.
lFor Example; Koontz Harold (1980), Management, New Delhi
lThe format for citing a journal article is:
¡Author’s name, (year), Title of the article, Journal name, Volume (number), pages.
lFor Example; Sheth J.N (1973), A Model of Industrial Buying Behaviour, Journal of Marketing, 37(4), 50-56.
NOTE CARDS
lDetailed Information extracted from a printed source is recorded on the note cards.
lIt is desirable to note a single fact or idea on each card, on one side only.
Writing the literature review
¡Writing the literature review well is a sign of professional maturity;
¡it indicates one’s grasp of the field, one’s methodological sophistication in critiquing others’ research, and the breadth and depth of one’s reading
Bibliography
A bibliography is a list of writings that share a common factor: this may be a topic, a language, a period, or some other theme. The list may be comprehensive or selective. One particular instance of this is the list of sources used or considered in preparing a work, sometimes called a reference list.
Webliography
A critical guide to electronic resources on the World Wide Web and CD-ROM, including electronic texts, HTML-encoded texts, hypertexts, secondary works, commentaries, and indexes
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