Research Process / Steps in Research

Research Process / Steps in Research

Research process consists of series of actions or steps necessary to effectively carry out research and the desired sequencing of these steps

Research process is…

¢Not mutually exclusive

¢Not separate and distinct

¢Not necessarily follow each other in a specific order

   Anticipate each step about the requirements of the subsequent step

èPlanning and conducting Research is not an one time activity;

èIt is a series of Activities and events  which are inter-dependent;

èHas a sequence of operations- some times run parallel ;

èThe first step largely determines the last step

      

1. Selection  of  a Problem

Formulating/defining a research problem is of great importance and significance in the entire research process

 The problem must be defined unambiguously

 Must verify the objectivity and validity of background facts concerning the problem

            ä         Feasible  to  Study;

            ä         Current  Interest  and  Urgency

            ä         Should  Enhance  the  Understanding of  the  Phenomena;

            ä         Availability  &  Accessibility  of Information;

            ä         Genuine  Interest  of  the  Researcher

Two types of problems:

 Problems which related to state of nature

 Problems which relate to relationships between variables

The formulation of a general topic into a specific research problem is the first step in scientific enquiry

Two steps in formulating the research problem:

 Understanding the problem thoroughly

 Rephrasing the same into meaningful terms from an analytical point of view

Manifestation of the Problem

   »       The Phenomena Exists  Unexplained;

            »          Limitations/Gaps in Previous Studies;

            »          Disagreements between previous Studies;

            »          Differences in Performance between two areas.

The Problem is crystallised into Clear, Crisp and Specific   “TOPIC”

2. Review  of  Literature

Must review two types of literature:

 The Conceptual literature concerning concepts and theories

 The Empirical literature consisting of earlier studies, which are similar to the one proposed

Sources of literature

 Abstracting/Indexing journals

 Published/Unpublished bibliographies

 Academic journals

 Conference proceedings

 Govt. Reports

 Books

3. Formulation of Hypothesis

 The researcher should state, in clear terms the working hypothesis

 Working Hypothesis is a tentative assumption made in order to draw out and

test its logical or empirical assumptions

 Hypothesis is the focal point of the research, for ex: “students who receive

counseling will show a greater increase in creativity than students not receiving

counseling” or “car A is performing as well as car B”

Functions of a Hypothesis

 It guides the direction of the study.

 It identifies facts that are relevant and those that are not.

 It suggests which form of research design is likely to be most appropriate.

 It provides a framework for organizing the conclusions that result

4. Research  design

• Need to prepare a research design – a conceptual structure within which the

research would be conducted

• The primary objective of the research design is to collect the relevant data

Research designs may listed as below,

1. Explorative research design

2. Descriptive research design

3. Diagnostic research design

4. Experimental research design

Many research designs exist.

1. Exploratory research design

            The main purpose of these types of studies are:

#  Formulating problem for more precise investigation or developing hypotheses;

#  Increasing Researcher’s understanding of the problem, concept, insight etc.;

#  To discover significant variables;

#  To find out relationship among the variables;

#  To prepare oneself for more systematic, large scale study and to test hypothesis

2. Descriptive research design

Concerned  with  describing   the  characteristics    of communities, population, social structure, behavioural  patterns.  Mainly oriented towards finding out  “What is happening”.

3. Diagnostic research design

            Directly concerned with the casual relationships with implications for action.  Studies of this type are mainly directed towards “Why” it is happening  and “What” can be done about it.

4. Experimental research design

To identify the specific relationship between two  carefully chosen variables by observing what     happens when one is manipulated under specific conditions.

5. Types of data

¢Primary data

¢Secondary data

¢Quantitative data

¢Qualitative data

Tools for primary data collection

¢A. Observation – participant & non-participant

¢B. Interview –

¢C. Inquiry Forms –

lQuestionnaire

lSchedule

lChecklists

lRating scales

lScore card

lOpinionaire

¢D. Sociometry

¢E. Scales and Tests

lAttitude scale

lAchievement test

lAptitude test

lBehavioural Inventories

lCreativity tests

lIntelligence Test

lProjective  techniques

lSES scales

Sources of secondary data

•Information that are readily available from various documents.

Sources of such information are

üCensus Reports;

üNational Sample Survey Reports;

üReport of Commissions and Committees

üPublished/unpublished documents

üAnnual Reports;

üBooks, booklets, diaries,

üJournals;

üReports and Abstracts

6. Analysis of data

• To describe the typical or average in a group and the relationship of two variables
• To compare two or more groups
• To estimate the value of parameter and the level of confidence

Measures of Central Tendency

• Mean – is the arithmetic average of the value of a variable
• Median – is the middle value of a set of numbers arranged in the order of magnitude
• Mode – is the most usual score

Measures of Variability

• Range – is the difference between the highest and the lowest value in a distribution
• Standard Deviation – is the value that shows the scores are spread out around the mean
• Quartile Deviation – is the half of the scale distance between 25^th per cent and 75^th percentile 

Measure of Relationship

• Correlation coefficient is used to examine relationship between two measures of the same group

            ex : Attitude & Achievement, Height & Weight

Two simpler forms of correlation are

• Spearman’s Rank Correlation (for ordinal scale)
• Person’s Correlation technique (for interval scale)

Report writing

• Research report is a narrative but authoritative document on the outcome of  research process
• It presents a highly specific information for a clearly designated audience
• It is a formal informational and or interactive report
• A report is a formal communication written for a specific purpose; It includes description of procedure followed by collection and analysis of data, their significance, the conclusions drawn from them, and recommendation if required.

Research Skills

n   Searching is not intuitive

n   There are techniques you can learn to achieve better search results

Benefits of Learning Research Skills

§      Gives you access to a full range of resource

§      Lets you acquire skills that can be used through the course of your lives and careers

§      Allows you to do more exciting work as students

1.      Critical Thinking

n    Critical thinking is accepting nothing at face value, but rather examining the truth and validity of arguments and evaluating the relative importance of ideas.

n    Critical thinking includes evaluating and weighing different sides of an argument, applying reason and logic to determine the merits of arguments, and drawing and evaluating conclusions from logical arguments and data analysis.

2.      Problem Solving

n    Problem solving is the ability to identify, define and analyze problems, to create solutions and evaluate them, and to choose the best solution for a particular context.

n    It requires imaginative and innovative thinking to find new ways to approach a problem, analytical skills to examine the consequences of a particular solution, and reasoning skills to weigh one solution against another.

3.      Analysis

n    Analysis is the ability to gather relevant data and information and apply methods of synthesis, critical thinking and data reduction to locate and understand patterns or connections in that information.

n    Scientific analysis often requires mathematical techniques to manipulate data, such as graphing experimental results or using statistical tests to examine differences between sets of data.

4.      Dissemination

n   Dissemination is communicating to others the purpose and outcomes of research.

n   It requires the ability to summarise information, explain the aims, motives, results and conclusions of the research, and tailor the communication to the needs and knowledge level of a particular audience.

Background Skills

i.                    Imagination and Creativity

n    searching for different approaches to a problem or situation (such as adapting technology for a novel purpose like using medical technology on plants)

n    looking for alternatives to common or accepted methods and solutions.

n    trying to examine issues from a different point of view (such as seeing an argument from another person's perspective).

ii.                  Logic and reasoning

n    understanding the structure of logical arguments, including deductive and inductive reasoning

n    assessing the logical basis for scientific claims and conclusions (such as deciding whether you agree with the conclusions drawn in a scientific paper, based on the evidence given)

n    drawing conclusions from scientific arguments or analyses (for example, making valid generalisations or predictions from experimental data).

iii.                Data collection

n   gathering data (for example through carrying out experiments, surveys, focus groups, interviews, literature reviews)

n   designing a data collection tool (for example, planning an experiment or constructing a survey).

iv.                Data Analysis

n     identifying an appropriate method (mathematical or otherwise) for interpreting and manipulating data.

n     applying techniques of statistical analysis, including using statistics in research and the statistical analysis of surveys (such as identifying and applying an appropriate statistical test of significance)

n     awareness of the limitations of analysis techniques (for example, understanding the assumptions behind a statistical analysis, and examining whether your data fit these assumptions)

n     forming appropriate conclusions from results of analysis.

v.                  Conceptual thinking

n     breaking a big issue into smaller, manageable parts (for example, breaking an experimental investigation into a series of smaller measurements)

n     identifying concepts and ideas relevant to a problem, synthesizing concepts and available data to construct a solution

n     making judgements about the value and relevance of ideas and information (for example, deciding to ignore a particular factor because it contributes only a small amount to the overall problem)

vi.                Reflection and feedback

n    thinking about what you have done, what you might have done differently, how you feel about it, and how you might change it to improve your learning (for example, reflecting on the outcomes of a research project and deciding on a different course of action for next time)

n    using insight gained through reflection to improve your own or others' work or situation (for example, watching others perform and offering feedback on the way they are tackling a problem).

vii.              Scientific Experimentation

·    identifying and designing an appropriate experimental procedure understanding the limitations and scope of an experimental design (for example, sample sizes and measurement uncertainties).

Types of Research

1.      Pure / Fundamental research

2.      Applied Research

3.      Action Research

4.      Developmental Research

5.      Evaluative research

6.      Interdisciplinary research

7.      Participatory research

                                  

1. Pure / Fundamental research

Pure research is concerned with generalizations and with the formulation of a theory or developing theory. It also redefines the existing theory

n      Gathering knowledge

n   No clear practical uses/policy relevance

n   Driven by thoughts/ideas

n   Guided by intellectual curiosity

n   Open-ended

n   Aimed at peer group

                                

2. APPLIED RESEARCH

APPLIED RESEARCH is a research done for an explicit purpose to solve an identified problem.

#  Application of  theories to  study the   phenomena

#  To find out possible solutions to the current  problems.

n   Using theory or atheoretical

n   Clear practical use/policy relevance

n   Driven by data

n   Guided by research commissioners

n   Has time and money constraints

n   Aimed at decision-makers

3. ACTION RESEARCH

n    undertaken with the goal of immediate application

n    refers to study of ‘on-the-job’ problems

n    adapts itself to the changes that have taken place in the particular community.

n    For example a teacher conducts action research to improve his/her own teaching.

DEFINITION

·        ACTION RESEARCH is systematic enquiry designed to yield practical results capable of improving a specific aspect of practice and made public to enable scrutiny and testing.

·        Action Research is a small scale intervention in the functioning of the real world and a close examination of the effects of such intervention.

·        Action Research in education is study conducted by colleagues in a school setting of the results of their activities to improve instruction. 

·        Action Research is a fancy way of saying let’s study what’s happening at our school and decide how to make it a better place.

HOW DO I BEGIN ACTION RESEARCH PROJECT?

Ø  BEFORE beginning the step-by-step process, the researcher should spend few minutes to review the pre-project activities that are to be taken up to help frame .

Ø  ACTION RESEARCH process asks the researcher to look at the current practice, identify something that might require change or a new strategy to implement, setting up a system for implementing the plan and analysing the results.  

TYPES OF ACTION RESEARCH 

1.      Teacher Researcher

              Focus is on classroom and an individual teacher.

2.      Collaborative Research

     Focus is on changes in one or more class rooms, grades or departments

3.      School wide Action Research

              Focus on school improvement, learning of students

MERITS

n            Helps in decision-making and action.

n            Broadens and deepens the fund of knowledge.

n            Helps to acquaint with research sight.

n            The problem-solving activity of action research helps in implementing one’s own findings into practice.

n            The experience of action research strengthens the profession as a whole.

n            Brings experimental outlook among the workers.

4. DEVELOPMENTAL RESEARCH

n   DEVELOPMENTAL RESEARCH is a variant of applied research in that the research has a problem solving function and leads to further research on the basis of its own findings

Implications for Development Research

• multi-sited research on the big issues (360 degree perspective)

• connecting global and local knowledge

• learning across development stories

• greater symmetry in partnerships

• understand our impact

Challenges

• New funding sources

– Matching international development & domestic funding sources

• New partnerships

– with organisations more geared to domestic issues

• New relationships

– less hierarchical, more symmetric

• New standards

– of accountability, ethics

5. EVALUATION RESEARCH

·       Evaluation is a methodological area that is closely related to, but distinguishable from, more traditional social research.

·       Evaluation utilizes many of the same methodologies used in traditional social research.

·       But because evaluation takes place within a political and organizational context, it requires group skills, management ability, political dexterity, sensitivity to multiple stakeholders, and other skills that social research in general does not rely on as much.

DEFINITION

n      Evaluation research is intended to evaluate the impact of social interventions, as an instance of applied research, it intends to have a real-world effect.

n      The most frequently given definition of evaluation is  “the systematic assessments if the worth or merit of some object.

n      Evaluation research is the systematic acquisition and assessment of information to provide useful feedback about some object.

n      Both definitions agree that evaluation is a systematic endeavor and both use the deliberately ambiguous term , which could refer to a program, policy, technology, person, need, activity and so on.

Goals of Evaluation Research

n      The generic goal of most evaluation is to provide useful feedback to a variety of audiences including  sponsors, client groups, donors, administrators, staff, and other relevant constituencies.

n      Feed back is useful in decision making process

Evaluation strategies

    Four major groups of evaluation strategies are discussed here:

1.   Scientific-Experimental Models

2.   Management-Oriented Systems Models

3.   Qualitative/anthropological Models

4.   Participant-Oriented Models

n    SCIENTIFIC-EXPERIMENTAL MODELS

    These are probably the most historically dominant evaluation strategies. Taking their values and methods from the sciences-especially the social sciences-they prioritize on the desirability of impartiality, accuracy, objectivity, and the validity of the generated information.

n    MANGEMENT–ORIENTED SYSTEMS MODELS

    Two of the most common of these are the Program Evaluation and Review Technique (PERT) and the Critical Path Method (CPM).  Both have been widely used in business and government in this country.

n    QUALITATIVE/ANTHROPOLOGICAL MODELS

    These models emphasize the importance of observation, the need to retain the phenomenological quality of the evaluation context, and the value of subjective human interpretation in the evaluation process

n    PARTICIPANT-ORIENTED MODELS

    These models emphasize the central importance of the evaluation participants, especially clients and users of the program technology.  Client-centered and stakeholder approaches are examples of participant oriented models, as are consumer-oriented evaluation Systems.

Types of Evaluation Research

    The most important basic distinction in evaluation type is that between formative and summative evaluations.

n    FORMATIVE EVALUATION

    Strengthen or improve the object being evaluated; they help form it by examining the delivery of the program or technology the quality of its implementation, and the assessment of the organizational context, personnel, procedures, inputs, and so on.

n    SUMMATIVE EVALUATION

    In contrast, examine the effects or outcomes of some object.  They summarize it by  describing what happens subsequent to delivery of the program or technology; assessing whether the object can be said to have caused the outcome; determining the overall impact of the causal factor beyond only the Immediate target outcomes; and estimate the relative costs associated with the object.

Types of summative evaluation

n      Outcome evaluation investigate whether the program or technology caused demonstrable effects on specifically defined target outcomes.

n      Impact evaluation is broader and assesses the overall or net effects-intended or unintended of the program or technology as a whole.

n      Cost-Effectiveness and Cost-Benefit analysis address questions of efficiency by standardizing outcomes in terms of their dollar costs and values.

n      Secondary analysis re-examines existing data to address new questions or use methods not previously employed.

n      Meta-analysis integrates the outcome estimates from multiple studies to arrive at an overall or summary judgment on an evaluation question.

6. Interdisciplinary research

       P.V. Young points out “IR is a Co-operative work which presupposes disciplined, united effort of persons who are dedicated for development and welfare, and not distracted by self interests, arguments and jealousies”.

            Social research as well as applied research calls for inter-disciplinary research. As sciences are clearly demarcated human life cannot be demarcated. A disciplined-specific study of social problems gives only one perspective of the problem. It does not give us the total view of the problem. In fact during the 19th and 20th century research concentrated on specific disciplines and specilised areas within those disciplines. But today problems are to be looked at from different angels. A holistic approach has now become necessary in many areas. To achieve this one has to depend on contributions from many disciplines.

            Inter-disciplinary approach is a method of research in which the tools of different sciences are used to find an explanation to the issue under study. It is a cooperative and coordinated study. Here experts of different disciplines pool their knowledge together for the purpose of finding explanation to a problem. It is an approach in which resources from different disciplines should be blended to provide a more meaningful and valid approach to solve a problem.

Features of inter-disciplinary approach:

1.      Cooperative and coordinated research.

2.      No single discipline is all pervasive.

3.      Necessary to avoid evils of over specilisation.

4.      Altruistic and creative.

5.      Holistic outlook.

6.      Branching off and diverging in thought and action.

7.      Integration with selective freedom, effective linkage and functional efficiency.

TYPES  OF INTER-DISCIPLINARY RESEARCH

1.      Inter-disciplinary approach coordinate various sciences.  A type of this method is such that in its social investigator himself conducts research and seeks help from other sciences wherever required.  This help is secured in the form of expert advice from the researchers of other sciences.

2. In a different type of inter-disciplinary approach, different experts of different sciences conduct researchers in their own field.  They study a problem independently and themselves prepare plan of study in their own field.
3. The third type is somewhat different from the two types.  In it, the investigators from the different sciences work in collaboration right from the beginning to the end. They work as members of a research group or team in which the functions are divided and every member is responsible to fulfill his own functions.

7. Participatory Research

Participatory Research seeks to de-elitise and de-mystify research thereby making it an intellectual tool which ordinary people can use to improve their lives.

Characteristics of Participatory Research

In sharp contrast to elitist research the key features of participatory research are:

• people are the subjects of research: the dichotomy between subject and object is broken
• people themselves collect the data, and then process and analyse the information using methods easily understood by them
• the knowledge generated is used to promote actions for change or to improve existing local actions
• the knowledge belongs to the people and they are the primary beneficiaries of the knowledge creation
• research and action are inseparable – they represent a unity
• research is a praxis rhythm of action-reflection where knowledge creation supports action
• people function as organic intellectuals
• there is an built-in mechanism to ensure authenticity and genuineness of the information that is generated because people themselves use the information for life improvement.

The key processes of Participatory Research

The promotion of participatory research is basically an exercise in stimulating the people to:

• collect information
• reflect and analyse it
• use the results as a knowledge base for life improvement, and
• whenever possible, to document the results for wider dissemination ie for the creation of a people’s literature.

The role of the researcher 

The role of the researcher is to promote the above processes. This can be done by:

• assisting people to collect data and then to process and analyse the information using simple methods which enables them to systematise their knowledge
• linking the local situation (which the people know best) to the larger external situation (about which the outside may know more)
• improving people’s access to new information and formal knowledge (eg technology)
• introducing local people to experiences from outside their environment
• throwing up relevant issues or problems for local people to reflect on and analyse and then assisting them in coming to their own conclusions.

The important thing is that the interaction between local people and the outside professional must primarliy benefit the people concerned by enabling them to articulate and systematise their own thought processes and thereby enhancing their knowledge base so that the can pursue independent actions.