Research Design

n   Decision regarding what, where, when, how much, by what means concerning an inquiry or a research study constitute a research design

n   A blue print for collection, measurement and analysis of data

n   A conceptual structure within which research is conducted

n   Follows the task of problem formulation

Research Design means…

n   Plan – specify objectives and hypotheses

n   Outline – types and sources of data

n   Blueprint – methods and analysis of data

n   Scheme – domain of generalizability

DEFINITION

n   Kerlinger: Plan, structure and strategy of investigation conceived so as to obtain answers to research questions. The plan is the overall scheme or programme of research

n   John Best: Provides a systematic plan of procedure for the researcher to follow

Meaning of Research Design

n   Research Design means laying down the strategy and tactics for planning, organizing and conducting research systematically, keeping some theoretical framework in view. 

n   Research Design is the arrangement of conditions for collection and analysis of data in a manner that aims to combine relevance to the research purpose with economy in procedure.

Research Design contains…

n   A clear statement of the research problem

n   Procedures and techniques to be used for gathering information

n   The population to be studied

n   Methods to be used in processing and analyzing data

Need / Purpose of Research Design

n    To yield maximal information with minimal expenditure of effort, time and money

n    To plan in advance of data collection and analysis of data

n    To have a great bearing on the reliability of the results

n    To organize ideas in a form

n    To provide a comprehensive review of the proposed study  

WHY RESEARCH DESIGN IS NEEDED?

As it helps to :

•               Make the research efforts fruitful;

•               Utilise the available resources in the best way possible;

•               Bringout the deficiencies in the proposed plan of action so as to correct it even before the actions commence;

•               Determine the type of resources, like time, money, manpower, etc;

•               Prepare the researcher in advance for undertaking complicated analysis; and,

•               Ascertain whether the course of action planned is in conformity with the objectives set for the study.

Features of a Good Research Design

n   Flexible, appropriate, efficient

n   Minimizes bias maximizes the reliability of the data

n   Gives smallest experimental error

n   Yields maximal information

n   Provides opportunity for considering many different aspects of a problem   

Considers following factors

n   The means of obtaining information

n   The availability and skills of the researcher and his/her staff

n   The objective and nature of the problem to be studied

n   The availability of time and money for the research work   

TYPES OF RESEARCH DESIGN

n   Descriptive Research Design

n   Diagnostic Research Design

n   Experimental Research Design

n   Exploratory Research Design

Descriptive Research Design

n   Concerned  with  describing   the  characteristics  of communities, population, social structure,           behavioural patterns.

n   Mainly oriented towards finding out ‘What is happening?’.

Meaning

n   Descriptive Research studies are those which are concerned with describing the situation, characteristics of a particular individual or a group.

n   Enables researchers to describe or present picture of a phenomenon or phenomena under investigation

n   Is mostly qualitative in nature producing descriptive data i.e.people’s own written or spoken words and observable behaviour

Approaches to DRD

n   Participant observation

n   Personal documents

n   Unstructured interviewing 

1.      Participant observation

n          Participant observation refers to research characterized by a period of intense social interaction between the researcher and the subjects in the milieu of the subject

Stages of Participant observation

n          Pre-field work

n          Field work

n          Data analysis

2.      Personal documents

Process of collecting personal documents,

n           Focus on

n           Formulating the objective of the study (what the study is about and why is it being made?

n           Designing the method of data collection

n           Select the sample

n           Colleting the data

n           Processing and analyzing the data

n           Reporting the findings

3.      UNSTRUCTURED INTERVIEWUses of Descriptive RD

n   Contributes  from a theoretical point

n   Methodological aspect of data collection is clear

n   Prediction about areas of social life

n   Facts for planning social action programs 

Limitations of Descriptive RD

n   May make description an end itself

n   No discovery of facts

n   No social problems of past or future can be dealt.

n   Focuses on current event only

n    Statistical analysis not possible

 

Exploratory Research Design

n   ERD is a preliminary study of an unfamiliar problem about which the researcher has little or no knowledge

It leads to

Ø  Discovery of the significant variables

Ø  Discovery of the relationship between variables 

Purpose of Exploratory RD

The main purpose of EDR is

n   To generate new ideas

n   To increase the researcher’s familiarity and insight of the problem     

n   To discover significant variables

n   To find out relationship among the variables

n   To gather information for clarifying concepts

n   To determine whether it is feasible to attempt the study

n   To prepare oneself for more systematic and large scale study

n   To make a precise formulation of the problem and to develop hypothesis

Steps in Exploration

n   A review of pertinent literature

n   An experience survey

n   An analysis of insight stimulating cases 

1.      REVIEW OF LITERATURE

n   Apply concepts and theory

n   Provide a fertile ground for hypothesis

n   Analysis the topic

n   Strengthen knowledge

n   Clues for further investigation

n   Different dimensions

n   Giving insight

2.      EXPERIENCE SURVEY

n   Interview experience persons

n   Explore various practical possibilities

n   Explore the factors of social retardation

n   Explore the interrelationship between factors

SELECTION OF RESPONDENT IN EXPERIENCE  SURVEY

n   Representation from different experiences

n   Advanced thinking

n   Relationship between variables

n   Misleading

n   Provocative

n   Greater objectivity

3.      AN ANALYSIS OF INSIGHT STIMULATING CASES

n   The reactions of individuals from different strata

n   Evoking insights

n   Intensity of the study

n   Selected instance of the phenomena

n   Diverse information into a unified interpretation

Types of people who provide insight

n   New comers

n   Individuals in transition

n   Deviants and isolates in a group 

Other methods of collecting data
in exploratory research

• Secondary Data Analysis

• Case Analysis

• Focus Groups

• Projective Techniques

 

Diagnostic Research Design

n Directly concerned with the casual relationships with implications for action.

n Mainly directed towards ‘why’ it is happening  and ‘what’ can be done about it.

•      Diagnostic studies aim at identifying the relationship of any existing problem. It would also help to suggest methods to solve the problem.

Experimental Research Design

n   ERD are those studies in which the researcher tests the hypothesis of causal relationship between variables

n   The experimental research studies are mainly focused on finding out the cause and effect relationship of the phenomenon under study

n   To identify the specific relationship between two carefully chosen variables by observing what happens when one is manipulated under specific    conditions.

Basic principles of ERD

n   Principle of replication

n   Principle of randomization

n   Principle of local control

Experimental Group

n   When the group is exposed to some novel or special condition, it is called as an experimental group

Control Group

n   In an experimental hypothesis testing research, when a group is exposed to usual conditions, it is named as control group 

Treatment

n   The different conditions under which experimental groups are put is an ‘treatment’

Experiment

n   The process of examining the truth of a statistical hypothesis relating to some research problem is known as experiment

Experimental Unit 

n   The pre-determined plots or the blocks where the different treatment are used

Experimental Error

n   Whatever effect is noticed on dependent variable as a result of extraneous variable is technically described as experimental error 

Control

n   When we design the study, minimizing the effects of extraneous independent  variable in experimental research is called ‘control’.

n   It refers to restrain experimental conditions

Confounded relationship

n   When the dependent variable is not free from the influence of extraneous variable, the relationship between dependent variable and independent variable is called as ‘confounded relationship’

Experimental Research

Laboratory experiments

n    Located ‘on site’

n    Close control of variables

n    Meticulous measurements

n    Shorter duration

 

Field experiments

n    Located ‘in the field’

n    Use available possibilities

n    Structured observations

n    Longer duration

Types of ERD

n          Before–after design without control group (Y - X)

n          After only design with control group    (Y – Z)

n          Before–after design with control group      (Y-X) – (Z-A)

Experimental Research

Advantages

n    Repeatable

n    Precision

n    Convenience

Disadvantage

n    Deception and ethics

n    Artificial settings

n    Representativeness of the research subjects

n    Control of the relevant variables 

RESEARCH OBJECTIVES

Meaning

·     Research Objectives are the specific components of the research problem, that you’ll be working to answer or complete, in order to answer the overall research problem. - Churchill, 2001

·     The objectives refers to the questions to be answered through the study. They indicate what we are trying to get from the study or the expected results / outcome of the study.

Criteria

   Research Objectives should be clear and achievable, as they directly assist in answering the research problem.

n     The objectives may be specified in the form of either statements or questions.

n     Generally, they are written as statements, using the word “to”. (For example, ‘to discover …’, ‘to determine …’, ‘to establish …’, etc. )

HYPOTHESIS

INTRODUCTION

            Formulation of hypothesis or propositions is an important step in the formulation of the research problem. It is known as principal instrument in research. In fact in certain situations the very purpose of research is to test the hypothesis. Although hypotheses are not essential for research they, certainly provide clarity, specificity and focus to the problem. They tell the researcher what specific information to collect, and thereby provide greater focus.

MEANING

            Hypothesis is a tentative proposition. It is a hunch. It is an assumption or an intelligent guess. It is formulated for empirical testing. It is a tentative answer to a research question. It is tentative because it is yet to be empirically tested.  You test these by collecting information that will enable you to conclude if your hypothesis was right. According to Lundberg,” hypothesis is a tentative generalisation, the validity of which remains to be tested.”  According to Goode and Hatt, it is” a proposition which can be put to a test to determine its validity.” From the above definitions three things become clear. First of all hypothesis is a tentative propositions. Secondly its validity is unknown. Thirdly in most cases it specifies a relationship between two or more variables.

CHARACTERISTICS

• A hypothesis must be simple, specific and conceptually clear. It must try to test only one relationship at a time. For example the average age of the male students in this class is higher than that of the female. This hypothesis is simple, clear, specific and easy to test. It tells you what you are attempting to compare (average age of this class), which population groups are being compared (female and male students), what you want to establish (higher average age of the male students).
• A hypothesis must be capable of verification: If the hypothesis is not verifiable the hypothesis has no meaning. In other words methods and techniques must be available for data collection and analysis.
• Hypothesis should be related to body of knowledge: The hypothesis should emerge from the existing body of knowledge. Above all it should add to it. Naturally a hypothesis is to be formulated after a through reading of the subject.
• Hypothesis must be operationalisable: It must be expressed in terms that are measurable. If it is not measurable it cannot be tested. In such a situation no conclusion can be drawn.

TYPES OF HYPOTHESIS

            There are different kinds of classification of hypotheses. Now on the basis of its function it can be classified as Descriptive hypothesis and Relational hypothesis. Another approach is to classify them as Working hypothesis, null hypothesis and statistical hypothesis. Third approach is to divide them on the basis of the level of abstraction. Accordingly on the basis of simple description one can have commonsense hypothesis. Secondly on the basis of logical derivation one can have complex hypothesis. Finally on the basis of abstraction one can have analytical hypothesis.

Descriptive Hypotheses and Relational Hypotheses: Descriptive hypotheses describe the characteristics of a variable (such as size, form, distribution). The variable may be an object, person, organisation, situation or event. For example the rate of unemployment among art graduates is higher than that of commerce graduates. Public enterprises are more open for centralised planning. Relational hypotheses describe a relationship between two variables. The relationship suggested may be positive or negative correlation or causal relationship. For example families with higher incomes spend more on recreation. Participative management promotes motivation among executives.

Working Hypotheses: As one begins to study a problem hypotheses are formulated. In the beginning the hypotheses may not be very specific. Such hypotheses are known as working hypotheses. These are subject to correction as one begins to go further into the research.

Null Hypotheses: These are hypothetical statements denying what are explicitly indicated in working hypotheses. These are formulated for testing statistical significance. As the test would nullify the null hypotheses they are called null hypotheses.

Statistical Hypotheses: These are statements about a statistical population. These are derived from a sample. These are quantitative in nature and they are measurable. For example group A is older than group B.

Commonsense Hypotheses: These are hypotheses that are very common to even ordinary lay men. They highlight empirical uniformities. Such empirical uniformities are perceived in our societies and in the behaviour pattern of certain groups of people. For example soldiers from upper-class are less adjusted in the army than lower class men. Generally commonsense hypotheses are not scientific in nature. Because they are mixture of clichés and moral judgements. Thus they have to be made scientific.

Complex Hypotheses: They aim at testing the logically derived relationship between empirical uniformities. In our social setting one can come across number of empirical uniformities. When such uniformities are made into ideal types they become complex hypotheses. For example the marginalised groups are generally silent. Such an empirical uniformity is termed as culture of silence. Now this hypothesis may be an execration of the truth. As the statements are far removed from the fact they become complex.

 Analytical Hypotheses: These hypotheses are concerned with the relationship of analytical variables. This requires the formulation of a relationship between changes in one property and changes in another. This kind of hypotheses is the outcome of highest level of abstraction.

FUNCTIONS OF HYPOTHESES

 In social sciences hypotheses renders several important functions. We shall discuss some of the important functions.

• It gives a definite point for the investigation. It provides the direction of the study. It provides the much needed focus to the research.
• A hypothesis specifies the source of data, which shall be studied, and in what context they shall be studied.
• It decides the data needs. It defines which facts are relevant and which are not.
• A hypothesis suggests which type of research is likely to be most appropriate.
• It decides the most appropriate technique of analysis.
• Hypotheses contribute to the development of theory. It links theory and investigation.

Variable

n    A concept which can take on different quantitative or qualitative values

Ex: weight, height, income, etc

n    Variable is a ‘symbol to which values or numerals are assigned’.

Variable – Construct /Quality / Property to be studied

Types of Variable

n    Independent Variable

n    Dependent Variable

n    Extraneous Variable

n    Continuous Variable

n    Discrete Variable

n    Ordinal Variable

n    Nominal variable

Independent Variable

n    The variable that is antecedent to the dependent variable is a ‘independent variable’

n     The variable whose change results in the change in another variable is called an independent variable.

n    An independent variable is the one that influences the dependant variable in either a positive or negative way

Dependent Variable

n    The variable which depends upon or is a consequence of another variable is a ‘dependent variable’

n    The variable that changes in relationship to changes in another variable(s) is called dependant variable.

Defining Independent  & Dependent Variable

n     Independent V                   Dependent V

Presumed Cause                                   Presumed Effect

Stimulus                                                Response

Predicted From…                                Predicted To…

Antecedent                                           Consequence

Manipulated                             Measured Outcome

Input                                                    Output

Treatment                                             Outcome

Extraneous Variable

n    Independent variable that are not related to the purpose of the study but may affect the dependent variable are termed as an ‘extraneous variable’

  IV                                                                  DV

                                   

                                    EV

Continuous Variable

n     Phenomena which can take on quantitatively different values even in decimal points are called as a ‘continuous variable’

Ex: Age

n     height in centimetres (2.5 cm or 2.546 cm or 2.543216 cm)

n     temperature in degrees Celsius (37.20C or 37.199990C etc.)

Discrete Variable

n    If the values can only be expressed in integer values, they are non-continuous variable or discrete variable

Ex: number of children

n    number of visits to a clinic (0, 1, 2, 3, 4, etc).

n    number of friends (0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, etc.)

Ordinal variables

n    These are grouped variables that are ordered or ranked in increasing or decreasing order.

For example:
High income (above $300 per month);
Middle income ($100-$300 per month); Low income (less than $100 per month).

Other examples are:

n    Agreement with a statement: fully agree, partially agree, fully disagree

n    Disability: no disability, partial disability, serious or total disability

n    Seriousness of a disease: severe, moderate, mild

Nominal variables

n    The groups in these variables do not have an order or ranking in them.

For example: 

Sex: male, female

Main food crops: maize, millet, rice, etc.

Religion: Christian, Muslim, Hindu, etc.

Factors rephrased as variables